Care in Crisis: An Applied Model of Care Considerations for Ethical Strategic Communication
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32473/jpic.v2.i1.p18Keywords:
ethics, crisis communication, applied model of care considerations, Nestlé, UberAbstract
Crises ranging from organizational wrongdoings to natural disasters cause destruction and even deaths. Communication is crucial for reducing harm and protecting public interest. This work forms foundations for ethical public interest communications (PIC) based organizational communications throughout the crisis lifecycle and across contexts. The Applied Model of Care Considerations (AMCC) is proposed and developed. The AMCC presents cross-cutting care considerations (i.e., relationships, interdependence, vulnerability, reciprocity) and four landscapes of care (i.e., physical, cultural, political/economic, human). Model constructs are applied to: (1) Nestlé’s decades-long global baby-formula-promotion controversy, and (2) #DeleteUber consumer outrage surrounding the ride-sharing app’s perceived profiting from travel-ban protests. Rooted in feminist normative philosophies, this research addresses literature’s lack of: (1) general crisis ethics theory, (2) applied crisis communications ethics, and (3) feminist-theory-oriented crisis communication.
References
An, S., & Cheng, I. (2010). Crisis communication research in public relations journals: Tracking research trends over thirty years. In W. T. Coombs & S. J. Holladay (Eds.), The handbook of crisis communication (pp. 65-90). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Anthony, K. E., & Sellnow, T. L. (2011). Beyond Narnia: The necessity of CS Lewis' first and second things in applied communication research. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 39(4), 441-443. doi:10.1080/00909882.2011.608695
Avery, J. E., Lariscy, R. W., Kim, S., & Hocke, T. (2010). A quantitative review of crisis communication research in public relations from 1991 to 2009. Public Relations Review, 36(2), 190-192. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.01.001
Baker, J. C. (1985). The international infant formula controversy: A dilemma in corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 4, 181-190. doi:0167-4544/85.15
Bhuiyan, J. (2017). Uber’s U.S. sales have recovered after the #deleteUber campaign but Lyft is still gaining. Recode. Retrieved from https://www.recode.net/2017/11/5/16599156/uber-business-market-share-lyft-scandal-delete-uber
Bowen, S. A., & Heath, R. L. (2005). Issues management, systems, and rhetoric: Exploring the distinction between ethical and legal guidelines at Enron. Journal of Public Affairs, 5, 84-98. doi:10.1002/pa.13
Boyd, C. (2012). The Nestle infant formula controversy and a strange web of subsequent business scandals. Journal of Business Ethics, 106, 283-293. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0995-6
Chandler, A. (2017, January 29). Lyft and Uber’s public-relations battle over the immigration ban. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/01/lyft-and-ubers-immigration-ban/514889/
Clement, G. (1996). Care, autonomy, and justice: Feminism and the ethic of care. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Coombs, W. T. (2014). Nestlé and Greenpeace: The battle in social media for ethical palm oil sourcing. In M. W. DiStaso & D. S. Bortree (Eds.), Ethical practice of social media in public relations (pp. 126-137). New York: Routledge.
Coombs, W. T. (2015). Ongoing crisis communication: Planning, managing and responding (4th ed). London: Sage.
Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (2013). It's not just PR: Public relations in society. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Dias, K., & Blecha, J. (2007). FOCUS: Feminism and social theory in geography: An introduction. The Professional Geographer, 59(1), 1-9. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9272.2007.00586.x
Dutta, M. J. (2012). Critical interrogations of global public relations: Power, culture and agency. In K. Sriramesh and D. Vercic (Eds.), Culture and public relations. Links and implications (pp. 202-217), New York: Routledge.
Finkle, C. L. (1994). Nestle, infant formula, and excuses: The regulation of commercial advertising in developing nations. Northwest Journal of International Law and Business, 14(3), 602-619.
Fessmann, J. (2017). Conceptual foundations of public interest communications. Journal of Public Interest Communications, 1(1), 16-30.
Fraustino, J. D., & Liu, B. F. (2017). Toward more audience-oriented approaches to crisis communication and social media research. In L. Austin & Y. Jin (Eds.), Crisis communication and social media (pp. 130-140). New York: Routledge.
Friedman, M., & Bolte, A. (2007). Ethics and feminism. In L. M. Alcoff & E. F. Kittay (Eds.), The Blackwell guide to feminist philosophy (pp. 81-101). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Gartrell, N. (2014). Bringing ethics alive: Feminist ethics in psychotherapy practice. New York: Routledge. doi:10.1192/S0007125000065934
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1985.tb00902.x
Green, M., & Lawson, V. (2011). Recentring care: Interrogating the commodification of care. Social & Cultural Geography, 12(6), 639-654. doi:10.1080/14649365.2011.601262
Grunig, J. E., & Hunt, T. (1984). Managing public relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Grunig, L. A., Toth, E. L., & Childers Hon, L. (2000). Feminist values in public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 12(1), 49-68. doi:10.1207/S1532754XJPRR1201_4
Hamari, J., Sjöklint, M., & Ukkonen, A. (2016). The sharing economy: Why people participate in collaborative consumption. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 67(9), 2047-2059. doi:10.1002/asi.23552
Heath, R. L. (2010). Crisis communication: Defining the beast and de-marginalizing key publics. In W. T. Coombs, & S. Holladay (Eds.), The handbook of crisis communication (pp. 1-13). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Held, V. (2006). The ethics of care: Personal, political, global. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0195180992.001.0001
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture and organizations. International Studies of Management & Organization, 15-41. doi:10.1080/00208825.1980.11656300
Holtzhausen, D. R. (2012). Public relations as activism: Postmodern approaches to theory and practice. New York: Routledge.
Illing, S. (2017, February 8). Uber and the problem of Silicon Valley’s bro culture. Vox. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/conversations/2017/2/28/14726004/uber-susan-fowler-travis-kalanick-sexism-silicon-valley
Isaac, M. (2017a, February 2). Uber C.E.O. to leave Trump advisory council after criticism. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/02/technology/uber-ceo-travis-kalanick-trump-advisory-council.html
Isaac, M. (2017b, January 31). What you need to know about #DeleteUber. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/31/business/delete-uber.html?_r=0
Jaggar, A. M. (1992). Feminist ethics. In L. Becker and C. Becker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Ethics. (pp. 363-364). New York: Garland Press.
Kaplan, D., & Manners, R. A. (1972). Culture theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kalanick, T. (2017, January 29). Standing up for what’s right [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://www.uber.com/newsroom/standing-up-for-whats-right-3/
Kennedy, A. (2016). Landscapes of care: Feminist approaches in global public relations. Journal of Media Ethics, 31(4), 215-230. doi:10.1080/23736992.2016.1220254
Koerber, A. (2013). Breast or bottle?: Contemporary controversies in infant feeding policy and practice. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
Lacy, S. (2014, October 22). The horrific trickle down of asshole culture: Why I’ve just deleted Uber from my phone. Pando. Retrieved from https://pando.com/2014/10/22/the-horrific-trickle-down-of-asshole-culture-at-a-company-like-uber/
Ledingham, J. A. (2006). Relationship management: A general theory of public relations. In C. H. Botan & V. Hazelton (Eds.), Public relations theory II, (pp. 465-483). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Linsley, P. M., & Slack, R. E. (2013). Crisis management and an ethic of care: The case of Northern Rock Bank. Journal of Business Ethics, 113(2), 285-295. doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1304-8
Liu, B. F., & Fraustino, J. D. (2014). Beyond image repair: Suggestions for crisis communication theory development. Public Relations Review, 40, 543-546. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.04.004
Lyft. (2017, January 29). Defending our values. Lyft Blog. Retrieved from https://blog.lyft.com/posts/defending-our-values
Milligan, C. (2000). ‘Bearing the burden’: Towards a restructured geography of caring. Area, 32(1), 49-58. doi:10.111/j.1745-7939.2007.00101.x
Milligan, C., Atkinson, S., Skinner, M., & Wiles, J. (2007). Geographies of care: A commentary. New Zealand Geographer, 63, 135-140. doi:10.1177/0309132510364556
Milligan, C., & Wiles, J. (2010). Landscapes of care. Progress of Human Geography, 34(6), 736-754.
Noddings, N. (1984). Caring, a feminine approach to ethics and moral education. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Palmer, G. (2009). The politics of breastfeeding: When breasts are bad for business. London: Pinter & Martin Ltd. doi:10.1111/j.1523-536X.2009.00368_1.x
Reailly, K. (2017, August 31). Here are all the times Donald Trump insulted Mexico. Time. Retrieved from http://time.com/4473972/donald-trump-mexico-meeting-insult/
Sandin, P. (2009). Approaches to ethics for corporate crisis management. Journal of Business Ethics, 87, 109–116. doi:10.1007/s10551-008-9873-2
Seeger, M. W., & Ulmer, R. R. (2001). Virtuous responses to organizational crisis: Aaron Feuerstein and Milt Cole. Journal of Business Ethics, 31, 369-376. doi:10.1023/A:1010759319845
Sellnow, T. L., Sellnow, D. D., & Vinette, S. (2012). The ethical imperative of significant choice: Addressing learning styles in crisis messages. In S. A. Groom & J. M. H. Fritz (Eds.) Communication ethics and crisis: Negotiating differences in private and public spheres (pp. 101-113). Lanham, MD: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.
Schultz, F., Utz, S., & Göritz, A. (2011). Is the medium the message? Perceptions of and reactions to crisis communication via Twitter, blogs and traditional media. Public Relations Review, 37(1), 20-27. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.12.001
Sherwin, S. (1992). No longer patient: Feminist ethics and health care. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Siddiqui, F. (2017, May 16). #DeleteUber will have lasting fallout for ride-hailing app, study says. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/dr-gridlock/wp/2017/05/16/deleteuber-will-have-lasting-fallout-for-ride-hailing-app-study-says/?utm_term=.68bef8177ae8
Simola, S. (2003). Ethics of justice and care in corporate crisis management. Journal of Business Ethics, 46: 351–361. doi:10.1023/A:1025607928196
Skærbaek, E. (2011). Navigating in the landscape of care: A critical reflection on theory and practice of care and ethics. Journal of Health Philosophy and policy, 19(1), 41-50. doi:10.1007/s10728-010-0157-5
Snyder, P., Hall, M., Robertson, J., Jasinski, T., Miller, J. S. (2006). Ethical rationality: A strategic approach to organizational crisis. Journal of Business Ethics, 63, 371-383. doi:10.1007/s10551-005-3328-9
Solomon, B. (2017, February 2). Here’s the full letter Uber’s CEO sent when he quit Trump’s Advisory Council. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/briansolomon/2017/02/02/uber-ceo-quits-trump-advisory-council-after-deleteuber/
Sommerfeldt, E., Paquette, M., Janoske, M., & Ma, L. (2013). Identifying network “communities” of theory: The structure of public relations paradigms. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. Washington, D.C.
Steiner, L., & Okrusch, C. M. (2006). Care as a virtue for journalists. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 21(2-3), 102-122. doi:10.1080/08900523.2006.9679728
Surma, A., & Daymon, C. (2014). Caring about public relations and the gendered cultural intermediary role. In C. Daymon & K. Demetrius (Eds.), Gender and public relations: Critical perspectives on voice, image, and identity (pp. 46-66). New York: Routledge.
Uber Newsroom. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.uber.com/newsroom/company-info/
Ulmer, R. R., Seeger, M. W., & Sellnow, T. L. (2007). Post-crisis communication and renewal: Expanding the parameters of post-crisis discourse. Public Relations Review, 33(2), 130-134. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2006.11.015
UN Refugee Agency. (2016, March 15). Syria conflict at 5 years: The biggest refugee and displacement crisis of our time demands a huge surge in solidarity. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/afr/news/press/2016/3/56e6e3249/syria-conflict-5-years-biggest-refugee-displacement-crisis-time-demands.html
Vanacker B., & Breslin, J. (2006). Ethics of care: More than just another tool to bash the media? Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 21(2/3): 196-214.
Veil, S. R., Sellnow, T. L., & Wickline, M. C. (2013). British Petroleum: An egregious violation of the ethic of first and second things. Business and Society Review, 118(3), 361-381. doi:10.1111/basr.12014
Wong, J. C. (2017, March 7). Uber’s ‘hustle-oriented’ culture becomes a black mark on employees’ resumes. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/mar/07/uber-work-culture-travis-kalanick-susan-fowler-controversy
Xu, K., & Li, W. (2013). An ethical stakeholder approach to crisis communication: A case study of Foxconn's 2010 employee suicide crisis. Journal of Business Ethics, 117, 371-386. doi:10.1007/S10551-012-1522-0
Zimmer, J., & Green, L. (2017, January 29). Defending our values. Retrieved from https://blog.lyft.com/posts/defending-our-values
Downloads
Additional Files
Published
Issue
Section
License
By submitting to the Journal of Public Interest Communications, the author(s) agree to the terms of the Author Agreement. All authors retain copyrights associated with their article contributions and agree to make such contributions available under a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY NC) 4.0 upon publication.
Author Agreement
This agreement takes effect upon acceptance of the Submission for publication in JPIC.
- I hereby grant to the University of Florida (“the University”) the non-exclusive right to retain, reproduce and distribute the Submission in whole or in part, in print and electronic format and in any medium. This agreement does not represent a transfer of copyright to the University.
- The University may make and keep multiple copies of the work for purposes of security, backup, preservation and access; and may migrate the work to any medium or format for the purpose of preservation and access.
- I represent and warrant to the University that the work is my original work and that I have the authority as sole author or I have the authority on behalf of my co-authors to grant the rights contained in this agreement. I also represent that the work does not, to the best of my knowledge, infringe or violate any rights of others.
- I further represent and warrant that I have obtained all necessary rights to permit the University to reproduce and distribute the work, including any third-party material. Alternatively, I represent that my use of any third-party material is allowed because the material is not in copyright or I have performed a fair use analysis and reasonably believe my use is permitted. Any content owned by a third party is clearly identified and acknowledged within the work.
- I grant these same rights to the George A. Smathers Libraries at the University of Florida. Additionally, I grant the right to both the University and Smathers Libraries to enter into agreements with third-party entities and the rights necessary to host, print, index and abstract the Submission.
Open Access and Self-Archiving
JPIC follows an open-access publishing model, meaning that all articles will be publicly accessible on the Internet immediately upon publication. I understand that I may share the submitted manuscript (preprint) of the Submission on the Internet at any point before or after publication, with a citation and link to the final version of record to be added as soon as the issue is available. I may disseminate the final peer-reviewed version at any point after publication.
Creative Commons License
JPIC applies a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY NC) 4.0 to encourage sharing and reuse of content and to maximize the impact of published research. By publishing in JPIC, I agree that the terms of this license will be applied to the Submission. Smathers Libraries (copyright@uflib.ufl.edu) may be able to offer additional information.
By granting this license, I acknowledge that I have read and agreed to the terms of this agreement.