Campus Support Program Service Use by Students Who Experienced Foster Care, Relative Care, or Homelessness

Barriers to Postsecondary Education for Students With a History of Foster Care

The U.S. foster care system served approximately 600,000 children and youth up to 20 years old during fiscal year 2021 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 2022). Many youth with foster care experience hope to earn a college degree to achieve stability and prosperity during adulthood; however, many are less prepared academically for college than their non-foster care peers (Unrau et al., 2017). A variety of barriers exist for youth with foster care experience to complete high school. Many experience frequent foster care placement changes that can result in repeated school changes, educational disruptions (Okpych et al., 2020; Wolanin, 2005), and the loss of established social support (Pecora et al., 2006).

Research findings show that youth with a foster care background experience high rates of childhood maltreatment (Okpych et al., 2020; Ryan et al., 2018), trauma exposure and associated learning disabilities (Morton, 2018), substance use disorders (Courtney et al., 2010), mental health issues (Geenen et al., 2015; Salazar et al., 2012), behavioral problems (McMillen et al., 2003), and chronic physical health issues (Woods et al., 2013); all factors that can negatively impact academic performance. Many foster youth repeat grades (Pecora et al., 2003), are more likely to obtain a GED than a high school diploma (Pecora et al., 2006), and are more likely not to earn a high school diploma (Pecora, 2012). Those with foster care experience who complete high school or equivalency are more likely to enroll in college if they receive college preparation (Barnow et al., 2015). However, a lack of educational expectations by case workers (Jackson & Cameron, 2012), less encouragement to attend college (Davis, 2006), and a lower likelihood of taking college preparatory courses (Wolanin, 2005) are obstacles to educational attainment for youth with a history of foster care.

Without family privilege, defined as “the strengths and supports gained through primary caring relationships” (Seita, 2014, p. 8), youth with foster care experience often lack the emotional and financial support afforded to their peers without foster care experience during traditional college-going years. For example, between the ages of 18 and 34, parents supply approximately $38,000 in material assistance to their offspring (Schoeni & Ross, 2004). Almost four out of five (79%) parents provide financial resources to their adult children and often contribute between $127,000 to $255,000 to their child’s college education (Merrill a Bank of America Company, 2020). Additionally, adult children frequently return home, with over 30% moving back home to live with a parent between the ages of 18 and 34 (Merrill a Bank of America Company, 2020). Without family privilege, youth with foster care experience may not go to college or may struggle financially when they do.

Many students with foster care experience work while in college (Courtney et al., 2010), likely because they exit foster care without familial financial support to assist with basic living expenses or to serve as a safety net. However, working can be counterproductive to degree completion. Evidence suggests that working while pursuing postsecondary education is associated with poorer academic performance (Logan et al., 2016; Wenz & Yu, 2010), a higher drop-out rate, and an extended time to complete a degree (Astin, 2005). To cover academic and living expenses associated with college, one study found that nearly 75% of the students surveyed with foster care experience had taken loans and still expressed concern about having enough money to complete their degree (Kinarsky, 2017). Additionally, students with foster care experience have the added stress associated with the risk of taking on student loan debt with limited financial stability should they exit higher education without a credential (Davis, 2006).

Additionally, youth with foster care backgrounds often experience gaps in independent living skills that become a barrier to attending college (Day et al., 2012; Salazar et al., 2016b). Upon reaching the age of emancipation, 18 years old, youth “age out” of foster care and transition into adulthood with reduced state-provided support. In 2021, more than 19,000 youth aged out of foster care in the United States (DHHS, 2022). However, only two years after receiving skills training while in foster care, youth with foster care backgrounds lacked tangible skills to seek employment and secure housing, and fewer than 20% received postsecondary education services (Okpych, 2015). The burden of preparing youth to leave foster care without family support resides with the child welfare system, but it often underprepares them for a successful transition to college. During this transition, there is often a reduction in formal support among youth with foster care experience, and many rely heavily on informal and peer support as they navigate new postsecondary experiences (Katz & Geiger, 2020).

In line with a strong desire to attend college, youth with foster care experience perceive college readiness at a rate higher than peers without foster care experience (Unrau et al., 2012). Yet, evidence suggests students with foster care experience underperform compared to non-foster care peers in first semester GPA and completed credit hours (Unrau et al., 2012). Compared to the 38% of people aged 25 and older in the United States who have at least a bachelor’s degree (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022), only 3%–10% of youth with a history of foster care complete college (Courtney et al., 2011).

Barriers to Postsecondary Education for Students Experiencing Homelessness

During the 2020–21 school year, nearly 1.1 million homeless children and youth attended public schools between pre-K and 12th grade in the United States (National Center for Homeless Education [NCHE], 2023). Experiencing housing insecurity and homelessness has adverse effects on academic performance that can last after housing is secured (Hallett & Crutchfield, 2017). The risk for mental health, substance use, and behavioral issues increases with experiencing homelessness, which can impede academic success, as evidenced by poor grades, dropping out, absenteeism, and disciplinary matters (Toro et al., 2010). The 2018–19 school year noted a significant disparity in high school completion, with 67.7% of homeless students graduating compared to a national 85.8% graduation rate (Atwell, 2021). Undeterred, approximately 90% of youth experiencing homelessness hoped to have a career, many of which require a college degree (Au & Hyatt, 2017), yet only 16% believed they would enroll or complete college within five years (Au & Hyatt, 2017; Bernstein & Foster, 2008).

Many high school seniors begin their transition to college experiencing homelessness. The Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) uses the following definition of homelessness:

Homeless means lacking fixed, regular, and adequate housing. You may be homeless if you’re living in shelters, parks, motels, hotels, public spaces, camping grounds, cars, and abandoned buildings, or if you’re temporarily living with other people because you have nowhere else to go. If you’re living in any of these situations and fleeing an abusive parent, we may consider you homeless even if your parent would otherwise provide you a place to live. (Federal Student Aid, n.d.).

Based on 2020–21 FAFSA applicant data, over 37,000 students were determined to be unaccompanied homeless youth, and an additional 38,604 requested homeless consideration (NCHE, 2022a). This is an underreport, as some FAFSA applicants choose not to disclose homelessness. Public school systems utilize federal funds provided under the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act to facilitate the identification, enrollment, attendance, and success of preschool to 12th-grade students (NCHE, 2022b). No equivalent funding is provided to postsecondary institutions to support the recruitment, enrollment, attendance, and success of college students. A recent study suggests that conservatively between 9%–12% of college students experienced homelessness within a year of the survey (Goldrick-Rab et al., 2018). Homeless students in postsecondary education face barriers that make degree completion less likely, including insufficient financial stability, academic preparation, family support, and a lack of guidance in navigating financial aid and the college application process (U.S. GAO, 2016).

Costs Associated With Academic Underperformance

Earning a college degree is associated with various benefits, including increased earnings over a lifetime (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2022), longer life expectancy and better health (Raghupathi & Raghupathi, 2020), reduced emotional and physical distress (Ross & Van Willigen, 1997), and lower unemployment (NCES, 2019). Between 2010 and 2020, the median income for those with a master’s degree or more advanced degree was nearly $70,000 higher than that of those with a bachelor’s degree (NCES, 2022). During the same period, bachelor’s degree holders earned approximately 63% more than those with only a high school diploma (NCES, 2022).

Substantial societal costs are associated with youth being undersupported in educational pursuits and underprepared for independent life while in foster care. Costs associated with social service provisions, engagement with the justice system, and lost wages cost the nation billions of dollars (Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2013). Similar societal expenditures were highlighted in a study about youth experiencing homelessness in southeastern Nevada that demonstrated a significant income gap compared to more educated peers, which cost the region nearly $36 million in unrealized economic contributions and tax revenue (Lim et al., 2018).

College Campus Support Programs

The number of campus-based support programs has grown over the last two decades and is considered a viable strategy to improve college-going experiences and outcomes of students with foster care experience (Geiger & Beltran, 2017; Johnson & Strayhorn, 2019; Piel et al., 2020). Due to limited empirical data on which to design a CSP model (Geiger et al., 2018; Salazar et al., 2016b; Schelbe et al., 2019), significant variation exists between programs. This variation is due to the fact that programs are each uniquely designed within the context of the specific campus, resource limitations, scope of the program, and degree of collaboration with other campus programs to support participants. Despite their differences, many CSPs provide services to mitigate barriers reported by students as they transition to and through college, including the need for mentoring, financial assistance, housing assistance, peer connections, access to medical care, and counseling to improve student retention (Dworsky & Perez, 2010; Geiger et al., 2018; Salazar & Schelbe, 2021; Watt et al., 2013).

Conceptual Framework

Astin’s (1993a; Astin & Antonio, 2012) inputs, environment, and outcomes (I-E-O) model provided the conceptual framework for the current study. The I-E-O model posits that student outcomes (e.g., academic performance, retention) are the product of students’ existing inputs or characteristics (e.g., demographics) experiencing an institutional environment (e.g., courses, peers, culture, institutional support). Thus, the environment, which the institution controls, can be tailored to specific student inputs to enhance student outcomes.

In the current study, the student input of interest is experience with foster care, homelessness, relative care, and/or ward of the state status. Experiencing foster care or homelessness is associated with postsecondary education underperformance compared to peers without similar lived experiences (Courtney et al., 2010; Olfert et al., 2023). Students with this characteristic input experience distinctive challenges while pursuing a college education, and CSPs are employed to improve retention and degree completion rates. A CSP is the environment of interest, since it functions as a conduit for service provision to enhance student well-being, academic performance, and preparation for life after degree completion.

Regardless of the differences in CSP design and services, CSPs seek to improve postsecondary achievement for SEFC/H. However, as CSPs for SEFC/H expand nationally, more information is needed to improve effectiveness. While researchers begin to explore the value of CSP services to foster care alumni (Dworsky & Perez, 2010; Hernandez & Naccarato, 2010; Salazar et al., 2016a; Unrau et al., 2017), more knowledge about which services CSP participants use, value, and best prepare them for life after degree completion is needed.

Study Context

This study examines the Unconquered Scholars Program, a CSP established in 2012 at Florida State University (FSU), a four-year public university. Before examining the CSP, it is vital to understand the state context. In 2013, Florida statute 409.1452 required public postsecondary education institutions to designate a campus coach to support students with foster care experience; however, no funding was provided to institutions to comply with this statute (Florida Social Welfare, 2023). An amendment in 2022 expanded support to homeless college students (Florida Social Welfare, 2023). To ease the expense of a college education, additional Florida legislative efforts granted qualified SEFC/H tuition and fee waivers at in-state public postsecondary institutions (Florida K-20 Education Code, 2023). Additionally, eligible youth in foster care attending postsecondary education receive a Postsecondary Education Services and Support (PESS) stipend to cover living expenses, totaling $1,720 monthly as of July 2022 (previously $1,256 per month; Florida Social Welfare, 2023). SEFC/H are frequently Pell-grant eligible, but it is rare that SEFC/H would be eligible for the tuition and fee waiver, PESS, and a Pell grant. Even if they did receive all three forms of support, they may still struggle to cover basic expenses, as some colleges’ cost of attendance estimates are up to 20% lower than actual living expenses for the region (Kelchen et al., 2017).

Since Florida introduced the tuition and fee waiver, there has been a consistent increase in SEFC/H using it, except for the academic year 2020–21, which was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic (Florida College System, 2023). The growth in the number of SEFC/H who received the waiver and graduated from college has steadily increased, with a total of almost 1,300 students graduating since 2013 (Florida College System, 2023). There has also been a continued increase in SEFC/H using waivers who receive services by a CSP (Florida College System, 2023).

The Unconquered Scholars Program serves undergraduate students with a history of foster care, homelessness, relative care, and/or ward of the state status. Its mission is to provide qualified students with holistic support and services to improve their overall well-being and academic success and prepare them for independent life after graduation. The Unconquered Scholars Program is a voluntary program provided at no cost to qualified students. Students learn about the program during orientation and the admissions process, and those interested in participating meet with the program director, who confirms eligibility and orients students to the program. Students in the program are referred to as “Scholars.” As of March 31, 2023, the Unconquered Scholars Program served 323 students and had a six-year graduation rate of 84%, which is similar to the university’s six-year graduation rate.

To identify Scholars’ needs and ensure the Unconquered Scholars Program’s services address barriers to well-being and academic performance, the program uses a student advisory board of Scholars to guide administrative decisions about program activities. This approach is consistent with literature that argues that to operate effectively, CSP input from students with foster care experience must be incorporated (Unrau et al., 2017). Scholars have access to a range of CSP services, including one-on-one advising, college life coaching, financial aid assistance and advocacy, a computer lab and study suite only for Scholars, referrals to mental health counseling services, academic and skills workshops, volunteer opportunities, bi-weekly group meetings, and other cohesion-building activities. Most Scholars also access services for first-generation students, including academic advising and tutoring services. Scholars also typically participated in a summer bridge program where they arrived on campus during the summer to take classes and received extra support in their transition to college. There were also assemblies that brought together the students for learning and social opportunities designed to build community, promote well-being, and provide information and skills to help them succeed in college. Scholars may also access services available to all university students. The university-provided services may be similar to those provided through the CSP (e.g., one-on-one advising, financial aid assistance, referrals to mental health counseling services); however, those provided through the CSP use knowledge about foster care, homelessness, and trauma in the service delivery. The Unconquered Scholars Program is funded through a combination of institutional, grant, and development sources.

Study Purpose

The number of CSPs to improve college retention and graduation rates of students with a history of foster care is growing (Geiger et al., 2018). However, empirical support for their effectiveness in improving educational outcomes is limited (Schelbe et al., 2019). More rigorous evaluation is necessary to evaluate CSPs (Dworsky & Perez, 2010; Okpych et al., 2020). Quantifying Unconquered Scholar Program participant service usage and exploring Scholars’ views about the service value is vital to understanding student experiences and outcomes. This study aims to document Unconquered Scholars Program service use and value reported by the Scholars. The research questions guiding this mixed methods study are:

1. 1. Which CSP services do Scholars use?
2. 2. Which CSP services do Scholars value?
3. 3. What suggestions do Scholars have to improve CSP services to better prepare future Scholars for life after graduation?

Participants

The 97 Scholars who graduated between spring 2015 and fall 2020 were invited to participate in the study. Over half (n = 54; 57.7%) of those eligible completed the survey at graduation. Scholars’ average age at graduation was 21.9 (SD = .70). Two thirds of participants were female, and over half identified as Black/African American. See Table 1 for the demographic characteristics of participants.

a Students can report more than one reason to be qualified as a Scholar, so the percentages add up to more than 100%.

Data Collection

Unconquered Scholars Program staff recruited Scholars in the last semester of college. Each Scholar received a link to an electronic survey and an email to encourage them to complete the survey. Staff explained participation was voluntary and responses would be confidential. The FSU Institutional Review Board approved the study protocol. Participants provided informed consent.

Data collection occurred from May 2016 through December 2021. Each survey included questions on the Scholar’s engagement with the Unconquered Scholars Program. Scholars were asked to what extent they participated in the different programs and services. For each program and service, Scholars could answer N/A = didn’t use; 1 = not at all; 2 = a little; 3 = somewhat; 4 = fairly; 5 = completely. Scholars were then asked how helpful each program or service was. There were several open-ended questions, including “What was your favorite thing about being an Unconquered Scholar?,” “How did the Unconquered Scholars Program help you during college?,” and “What more could the Unconquered Scholars Program have done to help prepare you for life after graduation?”

Analytic Strategy

Descriptive statistics were calculated for quantitative data, including demographic information and Scholars’ service use and perceptions of its helpfulness. The quantitative data were analyzed first to contextualize the qualitative data.

To analyze the qualitative data, the first and second authors conducted a thematic analysis of Scholars’ responses to open-ended questions following the process outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). They separately read through the open-ended responses and identified codes in the data. The open-ended responses were printed and organized in a binder by question type, so the coding was done by question rather than participant. No qualitative data analysis software was used. The first and second authors annotated a hard copy of the open-ended responses with their initial codes. Then, the first two authors met several times to discuss and create definitions for each code. As appropriate, they combined and renamed codes; ultimately, there was a final list of agreed-upon codes. Then, they organized codes into themes. After themes were defined and named, the second author selected exemplar quotes to integrate into the presentation of each theme. The first author provided feedback. Scholars’ words are presented verbatim, including punctuation and emphasis (e.g., written in all capital letters).

Valuing CSP

In their responses to open-ended questions, Scholars described what they valued about the CSP. They valued many CSP elements. They fell into the categories of support; resources; physical space; sense of belonging, community, family, and home; growth and motivation; and success.

Improvements

At graduation, Scholars identified how the Unconquered Scholars Program could have better prepared them for life after graduation. The most frequent response was related to finances. Scholars shared that the program could have helped them learn about finances. Scholars shared that assistance with preparing for graduate school or careers would have been helpful. Another recommendation was about improving life skills and making plans postgraduation. Scholars also recommended that staff at the Unconquered Scholars Program help them make more connections and assist with networking before graduation. Another recommendation was broadly about life skill development and preparing Scholars for adulthood. A few Scholars stressed that the program could have made more requirements and mandated participation in some workshops and activities that provided information and skills they would need postgraduation. Another theme in Scholars’ responses was that there were no improvements needed, as the Unconquered Scholars Program had done a great job with everything it intended to do.

A Holistic View of Scholars’ Experiences

In examining the qualitative and quantitative findings together, a consistent picture emerges that Scholars used and valued the full array of services available due to their involvement in the Unconquered Scholars Program. There is strong alignment between the qualitative and quantitative findings. Support and resources that Scholars described in their open-ended responses was also evident in the survey response. The vast majority of Scholars who used the services reported the Summer Bridge Program (93.6%), one-on-one advising (87%), mental health counseling services (77.8%), and financial aid assistance and advocacy (75.5%) were fairly or very helpful; and over two thirds of the Scholars engaged in each of the services and activities. Scholars mentioned valuing physical space, and in the survey, almost 90% of the Scholars said the computer lab and study suite was fairly or very helpful. Seventy percent of the Scholars reported having used the computer lab and study suite regularly, frequently, or many times. The sense of belonging, community, family, and home is echoed in Scholars’ reports that the activities that brought Scholars together, including Unconquered activities (81.3%) and Unconquered bi-weekly group meetings (70.2%), were fairly or very helpful. In the survey results, it is clear that Scholars were participating in the wide range of services and activities that had potential to offer growth experiences and motivation. Few Scholars reported never participating in a service or activity with the exception of mental health counseling services (33.3%) or tutoring services (22.2%). Together the qualitative and quantitative findings present the picture that the Scholars are engaged with the services and activities and find them central to their success and well-being.

Limitations

This study is not without limitations. One limitation is that the response rate was 57.7%. Also, as data were not collected from graduates who were not involved in the Unconquered Scholars Program, it is impossible to conclude how Scholars are faring as compared to their peers who were not in the Unconquered Scholars Program and/or had not experienced foster care, homelessness, relative care, or ward of the state status. Nor can there be any comparison with SEFC/H in the CPS who did not graduate, as data were only collected from graduates. Also, due to the sample size, it was impossible to make comparisons among groups of Scholars in the Unconquered Scholars Program (e.g., different genders, races, eligibility for involvement).

Study findings must be considered in context. They are specific to the Unconquered Scholars Program and not generalizable to all CSP. It must be stressed that the Unconquered Scholars Program services changed over the course of data collection. For example, after the study began, the program started providing financial therapy to Scholars. Additionally, in spring 2020, there were changes due to the COVID-19 pandemic. All university and the Unconquered Scholars Program functioning became virtual at that time. The sample contained students who graduated in spring 2020, summer 2020, and fall 2020; thus, some Scholars had their last one to three semesters only having virtual options.

Implications

Scholars were attending college as they were transitioning to adulthood, and, as such, opportunities exist for universities and CSPs to make the transitions to adulthood smoother and to change SEFC/Hs’ life trajectories by better preparing them for life after graduation. With the safety net of resources and support of the university, it is an ideal time for SEFC/H to plan for their future and develop skills needed throughout adulthood. It should be stressed that simply offering information will likely be inadequate; to assist SEFC/H, universities and CSPs must consider the students’ backgrounds when determining how to provide support and resources. Additionally, universities and CSPs should carefully examine if unintentional barriers prevent SEFC/H from accessing support and resources. Considering the study findings, recommendations are in the following areas: (a) planning and life skills, (b) financial literacy and money, and (c) mentors and connections. Additionally, findings point to the need for more research on SEFC/H and CSPs. While considering the recommendations, it is essential to acknowledge that the numbers of children experiencing foster care and/or homelessness remain fairly consistent; thus, this issue will continue for the foreseeable future.

Conclusion

CSPs offer a range of services to SEFC/H. Many Scholars attribute their successes and well-being to the Unconquered Scholars Program services and activities and the community of peers they created within the program. Florida State University and the Unconquered Scholars Program have a window of opportunity to help Scholars prepare for life after graduation. Doing so has the potential to assist students who have traditionally been disadvantaged.

Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the Unconquered Scholars who participated in this study. This paper is dedicated in memory of Pam MacDill—social work professor, child welfare advocate, and founder of the Unconquered Scholars Program.